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{{Short description|Diacritic mark in Devanagari and some other Indic scripts}}
{{Short description|Diacritic mark in Devanagari and some other Indic scripts}}
{{redirect|Nukta|the fish species|Schismatorhynchos nukta}}
<!--:''For the [[fish]] [[genus]].'' leave redlink to prevent ambiguous "(genus)" -->
{{distinguish|Anusvara}}
{{Infobox diacritic|char= ़
{{Infobox diacritic|char= ़|name=|unicode=}}
|name=
⚫
The '''nuqta''' ({{lang-hi|नुक़्ता}}, {{lang-ur|{{nastaliq|نقطہ}}|nuqtā}}; sometimes also spelled '''nukta'''), is a [[diacritic]] mark that was introduced in [[Devanagari]] and some other [[Indic scripts]] to represent sounds not present in the original scripts.{{efn-ua|The Hindi-Urdu word ''nuqta'' is derived from the {{lang-fa|{{nastaliq|نُقطه}}|noqte}}, from the {{lang-ar|نقطة|nuqṭah|dot}}.}}<ref name="Kulshreshtha2012">{{cite book |last1=Kulshreshtha |first1=Manisha |last2=Mathur |first2=Ramkumar |title=Dialect Accent Features for Establishing Speaker Identity: A Case Study |date=24 March 2012 |publisher=Springer Science & Business Media |isbn=978-1-4614-1137-6 |page=19 |language=en |quote=A few sounds, borrowed from the other languages like Persian and Arabic, are written with a dot (bindu or nukta) as shown in Table 2.2. }}</ref> It takes the form of a [[dot (diacritic)|dot]] placed below a [[Aksara|character]]. This idea is inspired from the [[Arabic script]]; for example, there are some letters in Urdu that share the same basic shape but differ in the placement of dots(s) or nuqta(s) in the [[Perso-Arabic script]]: the letter ع ''ayn'', with the addition of a nuqta on top, becomes the letter غ g͟hayn.<ref name="GovindarajuSetlur2009">{{cite book|last1=Govindaraju|first1=Venu|last2=Setlur|first2=Srirangaraj (Ranga)|title=Guide to OCR for Indic Scripts: Document Recognition and Retrieval|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WdSR9OJ0kxYC&pg=PA165|access-date=20 November 2014|date=25 September 2009|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=9781848003309|page=165}}</ref>
|unicode=}}
⚫
The '''nuqta''' ([[Hindi–Urdu]]: {{lang|hi|नुक़्ता}}/{{lang|ur|{{nq|نقطہ}}}}/{{transliteration|ur|nuqtā}}, {{lang-fa|{{nastaliq|نُقطه}}|noqte}}; from {{lang-ar|نقطة|nuqṭa|dot}}), also spelled '''nukta''', is a [[diacritic]] mark that was introduced in [[Devanagari]] and some other [[Indic scripts]] to represent sounds not present in the original scripts. It takes the form of a [[dot (diacritic)|dot]] placed below a [[Aksara|character]]. This idea is inspired from the [[Arabic script]]; for example, there are some letters in Urdu that share the same basic shape but differ in the placement of dots(s) or nuqta(s) in the [[Perso-Arabic script]]: the letter ع ''ain'', with the addition of a nuqta on top, becomes the letter غ g͟hain.<ref name="GovindarajuSetlur2009">{{cite book|last1=Govindaraju|first1=Venu|last2=Setlur|first2=Srirangaraj (Ranga)|title=Guide to OCR for Indic Scripts: Document Recognition and Retrieval|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WdSR9OJ0kxYC&pg=PA165|access-date=20 November 2014|date=25 September 2009|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=9781848003309|page=165}}</ref>


==Use in Devanagari==
==Use in Devanagari==

===Perso-Arabic consonants===
===Perso-Arabic consonants===
The term {{transliteration|hi|ISO|nuqtā}} ({{lang|hi|नुक़्ता}}) is itself an example of the use of the nuqta. Other examples include {{lang-hi|[[:wikt:क़िला|क़िला]] ({{lang-ur|{{nastaliq|قلعہ}}}})|qilā|fortress|translit-std=ISO|label=none}}; and {{lang-hi|आग़ा ख़ान ({{lang-ur|{{nastaliq|آغا خان}}}})|[[Aga Khan|Āġā K͟hān]]|translit-std=ISO|label=none}}, a combination of a [[Perso-Arabic]] (''[[Agha (title)|āġā]]'') and a [[Turco–Mongol tradition|Türko-Mongolic]] (''[[Khan (title)|k͟hān]]'') honorific.


⚫
{| class="wikitable" align="right"
Examples from Devanagari (the script used to write Hindi): {{lang-hi|क़|qa|translit-std=ISO|label=none}}; {{lang-hi|ख़|k͟ha|translit-std=ISO|label=none}}; {{lang-hi|ग़|ġa|translit-std=ISO|label=none}}; {{lang-hi|ज़|za|translit-std=ISO|label=none}}; {{lang-hi|झ़|zha|translit-std=ISO|label=none}}; {{lang-hi|ड़|ṛa|translit-std=ISO|label=none}}; {{lang-hi|ढ़|ṛha|translit-std=ISO|label=none}}; and {{lang-hi|फ़|fa|translit-std=ISO|label=none}}. Respectively, these letters modify {{lang-hi|क|ka|translit-std=ISO|label=none}}; {{lang-hi|ख|kha|translit-std=ISO|label=none}}; {{lang-hi|ग|ga|translit-std=ISO|label=none}}; {{lang-hi|ज|ja|translit-std=ISO|label=none}}; {{lang-hi|झ|jha|translit-std=ISO|label=none}}; {{lang-hi|ड|ḍa|translit-std=ISO|label=none}}; {{lang-hi|ढ|ḍha|translit-std=ISO|label=none}}; and {{lang-hi|फ|pha|translit-std=ISO|label=none}}. The term {{transliteration|hi|ISO|nuqtā}} ({{lang|hi|नुक़्ता}}) is itself an example of the use of the nuqta. Other examples include {{lang-hi|[[:wikt:क़िला|क़िला]] ({{lang-ur|{{nastaliq|قلعہ}}}})|qilā|fortress|translit-std=ISO|label=none}}; and {{lang-hi|आग़ा ख़ान ({{lang-ur|{{nastaliq|آغا خان}}}})|[[Aga Khan|Āġā K͟hān]]|translit-std=ISO|label=none}}: a combination of a Perso-Arabic (''āġā'') and a Turko-Mongolic (''k͟hān'') honorific, now the title of the leader of the [[Nizari Ismaili]] sect. Examples of more common words are {{lang-hi|बड़ा|baṛā|big|translit-std=ISO|label=none}}; {{lang-hi|पढ़ना|paṛhnā|to read|translit-std=ISO|label=none}}; {{lang-hi|पेड़|pēṛ|tree|translit-std=ISO|label=none}}; {{lang-hi|अंग्रेज़ी|Aṅgrēzī|English|translit-std=ISO|label=none}}; and {{lang-hi|करोड़|karōṛ|[[crore]]|translit-std=ISO|label=none}}.
⚫
|+ Nuqta usage in writing Perso-Arabic consonants
⚫
{| class="wikitable"
⚫
|+ Nuqta usage to write persio-arabic consonants
|-
|-
! Letter without nuqta !! letter with nuqta !! ISO transliteration of the letter with nuqta !! IPA !! Example
! Letter !! With nuqta !! IPA !! Example
|-
|-
| {{lang|hi|क}} || {{lang|hi|क़}} || Qa || {{IPA link|q}} || {{lang|hi|नुक़्ता}}
| {{lang-hi|क|ka|translit-std=ISO|label=none}} || {{lang-hi|क़|qa|translit-std=ISO|label=none}}|| {{IPA link|q}} || {{lang-hi|'''क़'''ज़ाक़|qazāq|[[Kazakh language|Kazakh]]|label=none}}
|-
|-
| {{lang|hi|ख}} || {{lang|hi|ख़}} || Kha || {{IPA link|x}} || {{lang|hi|ख़ान}}
| {{lang-hi|ख|kha|translit-std=ISO|label=none}} || {{lang-hi|ख़|k͟ha|translit-std=ISO|label=none}}, {{transl|hi|ISO|xa}} || {{IPA link|x}} || {{lang-hi|'''ख़ा'''न|k͟hān|label=none|[[Khan]]}}
|-
|-
| {{lang|hi|ग}} || {{lang|hi|ग़}} || ġa || {{IPA link|ɣ}} || {{lang|hi|आ'''ग़ा''' ख़ान}}
| {{lang-hi|ग|ga|translit-std=ISO|label=none}} || {{lang-hi|ग़|ġa|translit-std=ISO|label=none}}|| {{IPA link|ɣ}} || {{lang-hi|का'''ग़'''ज़|kāġaz|label=none|paper}}
|-
|-
| {{lang|hi|ज}} || {{lang|hi|ज़}} || za || {{IPA link|z}} || {{lang|hi|अंग्रेज़ी}}
| {{lang-hi|ज|ja|translit-std=ISO|label=none}} || {{lang-hi|ज़|za|translit-std=ISO|label=none}}|| {{IPA link|z}} || {{lang-hi|अङ्ग्रे'''ज़ी'''|aṅgrēzī|[[English language|English]]|translit-std=ISO|label=none}}
|-
|-
| {{lang|hi|झ}} || {{lang|hi|झ़}} || zha || {{IPA link|ʒ}} || {{lang|hi|अझ़दहा}}
| {{lang-hi|झ|jha|translit-std=ISO|label=none}} || {{lang-hi|झ़|ža|translit-std=ISO|label=none}}, {{transl|hi|ISO|zha}} || {{IPA link|ʒ}} || {{lang-hi|अ'''झ़'''दहा|aždahā|dragon|label=none}}
|-
|-
| {{lang|hi|ड}} || {{lang|hi|ड़}} || ṛa || {{IPA link|ɽ}} || {{lang|hi|बड़ा}}
| {{lang-hi|ड|ḍa|translit-std=ISO|label=none}}|| {{lang-hi|ड़|ṛa|translit-std=ISO|label=none}}|| {{IPA link|ɽ}} ||{{lang-hi|ब'''ड़ा'''|baṛā|big|translit-std=ISO|label=none}}
|-
|-
| {{lang|hi|ढ}} || {{lang|hi|ढ़}} || ṛha || {{IPA|ɽ}}{{IPA link|ʰ}} || {{lang|hi|पढ़ना}}
| {{lang-hi|ढ|ḍha|translit-std=ISO|label=none}} || {{lang-hi|ढ़|ṛha|translit-std=ISO|label=none}}|| {{IPA|ɽ}}{{IPA link|ʰ}} || {{lang-hi|प'''ढ़'''ना|paṛhnā|to read|translit-std=ISO|label=none}}
|-
|-
| {{lang|hi|फ}} || {{lang|hi|फ़}} || fa || {{IPA link|f}} || {{lang|hi|साफ़}}
| {{lang-hi|फ|pha|translit-std=ISO|label=none}} || {{lang-hi|फ़|fa|translit-std=ISO|label=none}}|| {{IPA link|f}} || {{lang-hi|सा'''फ़'''|sāf|clean|label=none}}
|-
| {{lang|hi|व}} || {{lang|hi|व़}} || - || {{IPA link|w}} || {{lang|hi|पकव़ान}}
|}
|}
⚫
The nuqta, and the phonological distinction it represents, is sometimes ignored in practice; e.g., {{lang|hi|क़िला}} {{transliteration|hi|ISO|qilā}} is simply spelled as {{lang|hi|[[:hi:किला|किला]]}} {{transliteration|hi|ISO|kilā}}.<!--hi-wiki (as of March 2013) opted to redirect क़िला to किला rather than vice versa, google hits (with 343k:187k) also suggest the 'nativized' spelling is more current. But this must be considered on a word-by-word basis. --> In the text ''Dialect Accent Features for Establishing Speaker Identity'', Manisha Kulshreshtha and Ramkumar Mathur write, "A few sounds, borrowed from the other languages like Persian and Arabic, are written with a dot (bindu or nuktā). Many people who speak Hindi as a second language, especially those who come from rural backgrounds and do not speak conventional Hindi (also called ''Khariboli''), or speak in one of its dialects, pronounce these sounds as their nearest equivalents." For example, these rural speakers will assimilate the sound [[Voiced velar fricative|ɣ]] (Devanagari: ग़; Urdu: {{nastaliq|غ}}) as [[Voiced velar stop|ɡ]] (Devanagari: ग; Urdu: {{nastaliq|گ}}).<ref name="KulshreshthaMathur2012">{{cite book|last1=Kulshreshtha|first1=Manisha|last2=Mathur|first2=Ramkumar|title=Dialect Accent Features for Establishing Speaker Identity: A Case Study|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xHmARyhRoNYC&pg=PA19|access-date=20 November 2014|date=24 March 2012|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=9781461411376|pages=19–}}</ref>


⚫
The nuqta, and the phonological distinction it represents, is sometimes ignored in practice; e.g., {{lang|hi|[[:hi:किला|क़िला]]}} {{transliteration|hi|ISO|qilā}} being simply spelled as {{lang|hi|किला}} {{transliteration|hi|ISO|kilā}}.<!--hi-wiki (as of March 2013) opted to redirect क़िला to किला rather than vice versa, google hits (with 343k:187k) also suggest the 'nativized' spelling is more current. But this must be considered on a word-by-word basis. --> In the text ''Dialect Accent Features for Establishing Speaker Identity'', Manisha Kulshreshtha and Ramkumar Mathur write, "A few sounds, borrowed from the other languages like [[Persian language|Persian]] and [[Arabic]], are written with a dot (bindu or nuqtā). Many people who speak [[Hindi]] as a second language, especially those who come from rural backgrounds and do not speak conventional [[Hindi]] (also called ''[[Kauravi dialect|Khaṛībōlī]]''), or speak in one of its dialects, pronounce these sounds as their nearest equivalents." For example, these rural speakers will assimilate the sound [[Voiced velar fricative|ɣ]] ([[Devanagari]]: [[ग़]]; [[Nastaliq]]: {{nastaliq|[[غ]]}}) as [[Voiced velar stop|ɡ]] ([[Devanagari]]: [[ग]]; [[Nastaliq]]: {{nastaliq|[[گ]]}}).<ref name="KulshreshthaMathur2012">{{cite book|last1=Kulshreshtha|first1=Manisha|last2=Mathur|first2=Ramkumar|title=Dialect Accent Features for Establishing Speaker Identity: A Case Study|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xHmARyhRoNYC&pg=PA19|access-date=20 November 2014|date=24 March 2012|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=9781461411376|pages=19–}}</ref>
⚫
With a renewed [[Hindi–Urdu]] language contact, many [[Urdu]] writers now publish their works [[Urdu#Devanagari script|in Devanagari editions]]. Since the Perso-Arabic orthography is preserved in [[Nastaʿlīq script]] Urdu orthography, these writers use the nuqta in Devanagari when transcribing these consonants. Sometimes, व़ is used to explicitly represent the /w/ consonant and to differentiate it from /v/ consonant व.

⚫
With a renewed [[Hindi–Urdu]] language contact, many [[Urdu]] writers now publish their works [[Urdu#Devanagari script|in Devanagari editions]]. Since the Perso-Arabic orthography is preserved in [[Nastaʿlīq script]] Urdu orthography, these writers use the nuqta in Devanagari when transcribing these consonants.


===Dravidian consonants===
===Dravidian consonants===


Devanagari also includes coverage for the [[Dravidian languages|Dravidian]] consonants {{lang-hi|ऴ|ḻa|translit-std=ISO|label=none}}; {{lang-hi|ऱ|ṟa|translit-std=ISO|label=none}} and {{lang-hi|ऩ|ṉa|translit-std=ISO|label=none}}. (Respectively, these letters modify {{lang-hi|ळ|ḷa|translit-std=ISO|label=none}}; {{lang-hi|र|ra|translit-std=ISO|label=none}} and {{lang-hi|न|na|translit-std=ISO|label=none}}). An example is {{lang-hi|[[:wikt:तमिऴ्|तमिऴ्]] ({{lang-ta|தமிழ்}})|[[Tamil language|tamiḻ]]|translit-std=ISO|label=none}}.
Devanagari also includes coverage for the [[Dravidian languages|Dravidian]] consonants {{lang-hi|ऴ|ḻa|translit-std=ISO|label=none}} /ɻ/; {{lang-hi|ऱ|ṟa|translit-std=ISO|label=none}} /r/ and {{lang-hi|ऩ|ṉa|translit-std=ISO|label=none}} /n/. (Respectively, these letters modify {{lang-hi|ळ|ḷa|translit-std=ISO|label=none}} /ɭ/; {{lang-hi|र|ra|translit-std=ISO|label=none}} /ɾ/ and {{lang-hi|न|na|translit-std=ISO|label=none}} /n̪/). An example is {{lang-hi|[[:wikt:तमिऴ्|तमिऴ्]] /t̪amiɻ/ ({{lang-ta|தமிழ்}})|[[Tamil language|tamiḻ]]|translit-std=ISO|label=none}}.


===Dardic consonants===
===Dardic consonants===


For example, the letters {{lang|hi|च़}} and {{lang|hi|छ़}} are used in Devanagari to write the [[Kashmiri language|Kashmiri]] palatal consonants {{lang|ks|{{uninastaliq|[[ژ]]}}}} {{IPA|[t͡s]}} and {{Lang|ks|{{uninastaliq|ژھ}}}} {{IPA|[t͡sʰ]}} respectively.
For example, the letters {{lang|hi|च़}} and {{lang|hi|छ़}} are used in Devanagari to write the [[Kashmiri language|Kashmiri]] alveolar affricates {{lang|ks|{{uninastaliq|[[ژ]]}}}} {{IPA|/t͡s/}} and {{Lang|ks|{{uninastaliq|ژھ}}}} {{IPA|/t͡sʰ/}} respectively.


===Eastern Indo-Aryan letters===
===Eastern Indo-Aryan letters===
Line 52: Line 49:
In [[Maithili language#Non-syllabic vowels|Maithili]], there are four non-syllabic vowels: i̯, u̯, e̯, o̯ written in Devanagari as य़, व़, य़ॆ, व़ॊ. But colloquially, these are written without nuqta.
In [[Maithili language#Non-syllabic vowels|Maithili]], there are four non-syllabic vowels: i̯, u̯, e̯, o̯ written in Devanagari as य़, व़, य़ॆ, व़ॊ. But colloquially, these are written without nuqta.


The [[Bengali-Assamese script]] has ড় ঢ় য়, which are variations of ড ঢ য; however, ব and র are completely different in nature.
==Encoding in Unicode==
The nuqta is important for accurate [[transliteration]] of scripts and representation of speech sounds. Indic scripts with a nuqta include [[Devanagari]], [[Grantha script|Grantha]], [[Kannada]], [[Odia language|Odia]], [[Gujarati script|Gujarati]], [[Bengali–Assamese script|Bengali–Assamese]], [[Gurmukhi]], and [[Telugu script|Telugu]].


==Similar diacritics==
==Similar diacritics==
Line 69: Line 65:


==References==
==References==
===Notes===
{{Reflist|group=upper-alpha}}


=== Works cited ===
=== Works cited ===
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{{Navbox diacritical marks}}
{{Navbox diacritical marks}}


[[Category:Urdu script]]
[[Category:Brahmic diacritics]]
[[Category:Brahmic diacritics]]
[[Category:Hindustani orthography]]
[[Category:Hindustani orthography]]

Latest revision as of 10:53, 12 June 2024

"Nukta" redirects here. For the fish species, see Schismatorhynchos nukta.
Not to be confused with Anusvara.
़
Nuqta

The nuqta (Hindi: नुक़्ता, Urdu: نقطہ, romanized: nuqtā; sometimes also spelled nukta), is a diacritic mark that was introduced in Devanagari and some other Indic scripts to represent sounds not present in the original scripts.[A][1] It takes the form of a dot placed below a character. This idea is inspired from the Arabic script; for example, there are some letters in Urdu that share the same basic shape but differ in the placement of dots(s) or nuqta(s) in the Perso-Arabic script: the letter ع ayn, with the addition of a nuqta on top, becomes the letter غ g͟hayn.[2]

Use in Devanagari[edit]

Perso-Arabic consonants[edit]

The term nuqtā (नुक़्ता) is itself an example of the use of the nuqta. Other examples include क़िला (Urdu: قلعہ), qilā, 'fortress'; and आग़ा ख़ान (Urdu: آغا خان), Āġā K͟hān, a combination of a Perso-Arabic (āġā) and a Türko-Mongolic (k͟hān) honorific.

Nuqta usage in writing Perso-Arabic consonants
Letter With nuqta IPA Example
क, ka क़, qa q क़ज़ाक़, qazāq, 'Kazakh'
ख, kha ख़, k͟ha, xa x ख़ान, k͟hān, 'Khan'
ग, ga ग़, ġa ɣ काग़ज़, kāġaz, 'paper'
ज, ja ज़, za z अङ्ग्रेज़ी, aṅgrēzī, 'English'
झ, jha झ़, ža, zha ʒ अझ़दहा, aždahā, 'dragon'
ड, ḍa ड़, ṛa ɽ बड़ा, baṛā, 'big'
ढ, ḍha ढ़, ṛha ɽʰ पढ़ना, paṛhnā, 'to read'
फ, pha फ़, fa f साफ़, sāf, 'clean'

The nuqta, and the phonological distinction it represents, is sometimes ignored in practice; e.g., क़िला qilā being simply spelled as किला kilā. In the text Dialect Accent Features for Establishing Speaker Identity, Manisha Kulshreshtha and Ramkumar Mathur write, "A few sounds, borrowed from the other languages like Persian and Arabic, are written with a dot (bindu or nuqtā). Many people who speak Hindi as a second language, especially those who come from rural backgrounds and do not speak conventional Hindi (also called Khaṛībōlī), or speak in one of its dialects, pronounce these sounds as their nearest equivalents." For example, these rural speakers will assimilate the sound ɣ (Devanagari: ग़; Nastaliq: غ) as ɡ (Devanagari: ग; Nastaliq: گ).[3]

With a renewed Hindi–Urdu language contact, many Urdu writers now publish their works in Devanagari editions. Since the Perso-Arabic orthography is preserved in Nastaʿlīq script Urdu orthography, these writers use the nuqta in Devanagari when transcribing these consonants.

Dravidian consonants[edit]

Devanagari also includes coverage for the Dravidian consonants ऴ, ḻa /ɻ/; ऱ, ṟa /r/ and ऩ, ṉa /n/. (Respectively, these letters modify ळ, ḷa /ɭ/; र, ra /ɾ/ and न, na /n̪/). An example is तमिऴ् /t̪amiɻ/ (Tamil: தமிழ்), tamiḻ.

Dardic consonants[edit]

For example, the letters च़ and छ़ are used in Devanagari to write the Kashmiri alveolar affricates ژ /t͡s/ and ژھ /t͡sʰ/ respectively.

Eastern Indo-Aryan letters[edit]

To represent the Eastern Nagari letter য় representing /e̯ɔ/, the consonant य़, ẏa is used in Devanagari.

In Maithili, there are four non-syllabic vowels: i̯, u̯, e̯, o̯ written in Devanagari as य़, व़, य़ॆ, व़ॊ. But colloquially, these are written without nuqta.

The Bengali-Assamese script has ড় ঢ় য়, which are variations of ড ঢ য; however, ব and র are completely different in nature.

Similar diacritics[edit]

Sindhi's and Saraiki's implosives are accommodated in Devanagari with a line attached below—a diacritical bar: ॻ [ɠə], ॼ [ʄə], ॾ [ɗə], ॿ [ɓə].

In Tamil script, the special character ஃ (ஆய்த எழுத்து, āyda eḻuttu) is used like nuqta to represent non-native consonants.

In Thaana script of Maldives, one or many nuqtas are added to their native consonants to represent Perso-Arabic consonants, and each phoneme is encoded as a whole in the Unicode block (instead of a separate codepoint for the diacritic).

See also[edit]

References[edit]

Notes[edit]

  1. ^ The Hindi-Urdu word nuqta is derived from the Persian: نُقطه, romanized: noqte, from the Arabic: نقطة, romanized: nuqṭah, lit. 'dot'.

Works cited[edit]

  1. ^ Kulshreshtha, Manisha; Mathur, Ramkumar (24 March 2012). Dialect Accent Features for Establishing Speaker Identity: A Case Study. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 19. ISBN 978-1-4614-1137-6. A few sounds, borrowed from the other languages like Persian and Arabic, are written with a dot (bindu or nukta) as shown in Table 2.2.
  2. ^ Govindaraju, Venu; Setlur, Srirangaraj (Ranga) (25 September 2009). Guide to OCR for Indic Scripts: Document Recognition and Retrieval. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 165. ISBN 9781848003309. Retrieved 20 November 2014.
  3. ^ Kulshreshtha, Manisha; Mathur, Ramkumar (24 March 2012). Dialect Accent Features for Establishing Speaker Identity: A Case Study. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 19–. ISBN 9781461411376. Retrieved 20 November 2014.

Bibliography[edit]

  • Vajpeyi, K. D. (Kishorī Dās Vājpayī; किशोरीदास वाजपेयी), Hindī shabdanushāsan हिन्दी शब्दनुशासन (1957, 1958, 1973, 1976, 1988).

External links[edit]

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