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{{Short description|American paleontologist (1902–1984)}}

{{Use mdy dates|date=November 2011}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=November 2011}}
{{Infobox scientist
{{Infobox scientist
|name = George Gaylord Simpson
|name = George Gaylord Simpson
|honorific_suffix = {{post-nominals|country=GBR|size=100%|ForMemRS}}
|honorific_suffix = {{post-nominals|country=GBR|size=100%|ForMemRS}}
|image = George Gaylord Simpson.jpg
|image = George Gaylord Simpson-en.jpg
|caption = Simpson in 1965
|caption = Simpson in 1965
|birth_date = {{birth date|1902|6|16|mf=yes}}
|birth_date = {{birth date|1902|6|16|mf=yes}}
|birth_place = [[Chicago, Illinois]]
|birth_place = [[Chicago, Illinois]]
|death_date = {{death date and age|1984|10|6|1902|6|16|mf=yes}}
|death_date = {{death date and age|1984|10|6|1902|6|16|mf=yes}}
|death_place = [[Fresno, California]]
|death_place = [[Tucson, Arizona]]
|residence =
|residence =
|citizenship =
|citizenship =
|nationality = [[United States]]
|nationality = American
|ethnicity =
|ethnicity =
|field = [[Paleontology]]
|field = [[Paleontology]]
Line 29: Line 31:
}}
}}


'''George Gaylord Simpson''' (June 16, 1902 – October 6, 1984) was a [[United States|US]] [[paleontologist]]. Simpson was perhaps the most influential paleontologist of the twentieth century, and a major participant in the [[Modern synthesis (20th century)|modern synthesis]], contributing ''[[Tempo and Mode in Evolution]]'' (1944), ''The Meaning of Evolution'' (1949) and ''The Major Features of Evolution'' (1953). He was an expert on [[extinct]] [[mammal]]s and their intercontinental migrations.<ref>Simpson G.G. 1940. Mammals and land bridges. ''Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences'' '''30''': 137{{ndash}}163. See Charles H. Smith's website for full text: [http://people.wku.edu/charles.smith/biogeog/SIMP940B.htm]</ref> He anticipated such concepts as [[punctuated equilibrium]] (in ''Tempo and Mode'') and dispelled the myth that the [[evolution of the horse]] was a linear process culminating in the modern ''[[Equus caballus]]''. He coined the word ''[[wikt:hypodigm|hypodigm]]'' in 1940, and published extensively on the [[Taxonomy (biology)|taxonomy]] of fossil and extant mammals.<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Simpson | first1 = G. G. | author-link = George Gaylord Simpson| title = Types in modern taxonomy | doi = 10.2475/ajs.238.6.413 | journal = American Journal of Science | volume = 238 | issue = 6 | pages = 413–426 | year = 1940 | bibcode = 1940AmJS..238..413S }} p. 418.</ref> Simpson was influentially, and incorrectly, opposed to [[Alfred Wegener]]'s theory of [[continental drift]].<ref>Simpson G.G. 1953. ''Evolution and geography: an essay on historical biogeography with special reference to mammals''. Oregon State System of Higher Education: Eugene, Oregon.</ref>
'''George Gaylord Simpson''' (June 16, 1902 – October 6, 1984) was an American [[paleontologist]]. Simpson was perhaps the most influential paleontologist of the twentieth century, and a major participant in the [[Modern synthesis (20th century)|modern synthesis]], contributing ''[[Tempo and Mode in Evolution]]'' (1944), ''The Meaning of Evolution'' (1949) and ''The Major Features of Evolution'' (1953). He was an expert on [[extinct]] [[mammal]]s and their intercontinental migrations.<ref>Simpson G.G. 1940. Mammals and land bridges. ''Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences'' '''30''': 137{{ndash}}163. See Charles H. Smith's website for full text: [http://people.wku.edu/charles.smith/biogeog/SIMP940B.htm]</ref> Simpson was extraordinarily knowledgeable about [[Mesozoic]] fossil mammals and fossil mammals of North and South America. He anticipated such concepts as [[punctuated equilibrium]] (in ''Tempo and Mode'') and dispelled the myth that the [[evolution of the horse]] was a linear process culminating in the modern ''[[Equus caballus]]''. He coined the word ''[[wikt:hypodigm|hypodigm]]'' in 1940, and published extensively on the [[Taxonomy (biology)|taxonomy]] of fossil and extant mammals.<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Simpson | first1 = G. G. | author-link = George Gaylord Simpson| title = Types in modern taxonomy | doi = 10.2475/ajs.238.6.413 | journal = American Journal of Science | volume = 238 | issue = 6 | pages = 413–426 | year = 1940 | bibcode = 1940AmJS..238..413S }} p. 418.</ref> Simpson was influentially, and incorrectly, opposed to [[Alfred Wegener]]'s theory of [[continental drift]],<ref>Simpson G.G. 1953. ''Evolution and geography: an essay on historical biogeography with special reference to mammals''. Oregon State System of Higher Education: Eugene, Oregon.</ref> but accepted the [[theory of plate tectonics]] (and continental drift) when the evidence became conclusive.


He was Professor of [[Zoology]] at [[Columbia University]], and [[Curator]] of the Department of [[Geology]] and Paleontology at the [[American Museum of Natural History]] from 1945 to 1959. He was Curator of the [[Museum of Comparative Zoology]] at [[Harvard University]] from 1959 to 1970, and a Professor of [[Geoscience]]s at the [[University of Arizona]] until his retirement in 1982.
He was Professor of [[Zoology]] at [[Columbia University]], and [[Curator]] of the Department of [[Geology]] and Paleontology at the [[American Museum of Natural History]] from 1945 to 1959. He was Curator of the [[Museum of Comparative Zoology]] at [[Harvard University]] from 1959 to 1970, and a Professor of [[Geoscience]]s at the [[University of Arizona]] from 1968 until his retirement in 1982.


==Awards==
==Awards and honors==
In 1943 Simpson was awarded the [[Mary Clark Thompson Medal]] from the [[United States National Academy of Sciences|National Academy of Sciences]].<ref name=Thompson>{{cite web|title=Mary Clark Thompson Medal |url=http://www.nasonline.org/site/PageServer?pagename=AWARDS_thompson |publisher=National Academy of Sciences |access-date=February 15, 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101229195631/http://www.nasonline.org/site/PageServer?pagename=AWARDS_thompson |archive-date=December 29, 2010 }}</ref> For his work, ''Tempo and mode in evolution'', he was awarded the Academy's [[Daniel Giraud Elliot Medal]] in 1944.<ref name=Elliot>{{cite web|title=Daniel Giraud Elliot Medal |url=http://www.nasonline.org/site/PageServer?pagename=AWARDS_elliot |publisher=National Academy of Sciences |access-date=February 15, 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120801121352/http://nas.nasonline.org/site/PageServer?pagename=AWARDS_elliot |archive-date=August 1, 2012 }}</ref> He was awarded the [[Linnean Society of London]]'s prestigious [[Darwin-Wallace Medal]] in 1958. Simpson also received the [[Royal Society]]'s [[Darwin Medal]] 'In recognition of his distinguished contributions to general evolutionary theory, based on a profound study of palaeontology, particularly of vertebrates,' in 1962. In 1966, Simpson received the Golden Plate Award of the [[Academy of Achievement|American Academy of Achievement]].<ref>{{cite web|title= Golden Plate Awardees of the American Academy of Achievement |website=www.achievement.org|publisher=[[American Academy of Achievement]]|url=https://achievement.org/our-history/golden-plate-awards/#science-exploration}}</ref>
Simpson was elected to the [[American Philosophical Society]] in 1936 and the United States [[National Academy of Sciences]] in 1941.<ref>{{Cite web |title=APS Member History |url=https://search.amphilsoc.org/memhist/search?creator=George+G.+Simpson&title=&subject=&subdiv=&mem=&year=&year-max=&dead=&keyword=&smode=advanced |access-date=2023-05-31 |website=search.amphilsoc.org}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=George G. Simpson |url=http://www.nasonline.org/member-directory/deceased-members/20001972.html |access-date=2023-05-31 |website=www.nasonline.org}}</ref> In 1943 Simpson was awarded the [[Mary Clark Thompson Medal]] from the [[United States National Academy of Sciences|National Academy of Sciences]].<ref name=Thompson>{{cite web|title=Mary Clark Thompson Medal |url=http://www.nasonline.org/site/PageServer?pagename=AWARDS_thompson |publisher=National Academy of Sciences |access-date=February 15, 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101229195631/http://www.nasonline.org/site/PageServer?pagename=AWARDS_thompson |archive-date=December 29, 2010 }}</ref> For his work, ''Tempo and mode in evolution'', he was awarded the academy's [[Daniel Giraud Elliot Medal]] in 1944.<ref name=Elliot>{{cite web|title=Daniel Giraud Elliot Medal |url=http://www.nasonline.org/site/PageServer?pagename=AWARDS_elliot |publisher=National Academy of Sciences |access-date=February 15, 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120801121352/http://nas.nasonline.org/site/PageServer?pagename=AWARDS_elliot |archive-date=August 1, 2012 }}</ref> He was elected to the [[American Academy of Arts and Sciences]] in 1948.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-02-09 |title=George Gaylord Simpson |url=https://www.amacad.org/person/george-gaylord-simpson |access-date=2023-05-31 |website=American Academy of Arts & Sciences |language=en}}</ref> He was awarded the [[Linnean Society of London]]'s prestigious [[Darwin-Wallace Medal]] in 1958. Simpson also received the [[Royal Society]]'s [[Darwin Medal]] 'In recognition of his distinguished contributions to general evolutionary theory, based on a profound study of palaeontology, particularly of vertebrates,' in 1962. In 1966, Simpson received the Golden Plate Award of the [[Academy of Achievement|American Academy of Achievement]].<ref>{{cite web|title= Golden Plate Awardees of the American Academy of Achievement |website=www.achievement.org|publisher=[[American Academy of Achievement]]|url=https://achievement.org/our-history/golden-plate-awards/#science-exploration}}</ref>


At the [[University of Arizona]], [[Tucson, Arizona|Tucson]], the [[Gould-Simpson Building]] was named for Arizona geologist [[Lawrence M. Gould]] and Simpson.<ref>[http://iiewww.ccit.arizona.edu/uamap/staticLarge/77.html Gould-Simpson Building, Univ. of Arizona] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090615005801/http://iiewww.ccit.arizona.edu/uamap/staticLarge/77.html |date=June 15, 2009 }}</ref> Simpson was noted for his work in the field of [[paleogeography]] and continental evolution relationships.
At the [[University of Arizona]], [[Tucson, Arizona|Tucson]], the [[Gould-Simpson Building]] was named in honor of Simpson and Minnesota geologist and polar explorer [[Lawrence M. Gould]], who, like Simpson, also accepted an appointment as Professor of Geosciences at the University of Arizona after his formal retirement.<ref>[http://iiewww.ccit.arizona.edu/uamap/staticLarge/77.html Gould-Simpson Building, Univ. of Arizona] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090615005801/http://iiewww.ccit.arizona.edu/uamap/staticLarge/77.html |date=June 15, 2009 }}</ref> Simpson was noted for his work in the fields of [[paleobiogeography]] and [[animal evolution]].


==Views==
==Views==
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itself with life on places other than Earth, as a science without a subject".<ref name="At Ten">{{Cite journal | author = Anon| doi = 10.1038/440582a | title = Astrobiology at ten | journal = Nature | volume = 440 | issue = 7084 | page = 582| year = 2006 | pmid = 16572129|bibcode = 2006Natur.440Q.582. | doi-access = free }}</ref>
itself with life on places other than Earth, as a science without a subject".<ref name="At Ten">{{Cite journal | author = Anon| doi = 10.1038/440582a | title = Astrobiology at ten | journal = Nature | volume = 440 | issue = 7084 | page = 582| year = 2006 | pmid = 16572129|bibcode = 2006Natur.440Q.582. | doi-access = free }}</ref>


He was raised as a Christian but later became an [[agnostic]].<ref>{{cite book|title=Simple Curiosity: Letters from George Gaylord Simpson to His Family, 1921-1970|url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_oTFEYuvKCWIC|year=1987|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=9780520057920|page=[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_oTFEYuvKCWIC/page/n324 16]|editor=Léo F. Laporte|quote=By his early teens, Simpson had given up being a Christian, although he had not formally declared himself an atheist. At college he began the gradual development of what might best be called positivistic agnosticism: a belief that the world could be known and explained by ordinary empirical observation without recourse to supernatural forces. Ultimate causation, he considered unknowable.}}<!--|access-date=30 April 2013--></ref>
He was raised as a Christian but in his early teens became an [[agnostic]], nontheist, and philosophical naturalist.<ref>{{cite book|title=Simple Curiosity: Letters from Gaylord Simpson to His Family, 1921-1970|url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_oTFEYuvKCWIC|year=1987|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=9780520057920|page=[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_oTFEYuvKCWIC/page/n324 16]|editor=Léo F. Laporte|quote=By his early teens, Simpson had given up being a Christian, although he had not formally declared himself an atheist. At college he began the gradual development of what might best be called positivistic agnosticism: a belief that the world could be known and explained by ordinary empirical observation without recourse to supernatural forces. Ultimate causation, he considered unknowable.}}<!--|access-date=30 April 2013--></ref>


==Books==
==Books==
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* [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.19161 ''Quantitative Zoology''] (1939)
* [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.19161 ''Quantitative Zoology''] (1939)
* ''[[Tempo and Mode in Evolution]]'' (1944)
* ''[[Tempo and Mode in Evolution]]'' (1944)
* ''The Principles of Classification and A Classification of Mammals (1945)
* [https://archive.org/details/B-001-013-835 ''The Meaning of Evolution''] (1949, 1951)
* [https://archive.org/details/B-001-013-835 ''The Meaning of Evolution''] (1949, 1951)
* ''Horses'' (1951)
* ''Horses'' (1951)
Line 60: Line 63:
* ''Penguins'' (1976)
* ''Penguins'' (1976)
* ''Concession to the Improbable'' (1978) (an autobiography)
* ''Concession to the Improbable'' (1978) (an autobiography)
⚫
* ''Fossils and the History Of Life'' (1983)
* ''Splendid Isolation'' (1980)
* ''Splendid Isolation'' (1980)
* ''The Book of Darwin'' (1983)
⚫
* ''Fossils and the History Of Life'' (1983)
* ''The Dechronization of Sam Magruder'' (posthumously published novella, 1996)
* ''The Dechronization of Sam Magruder'' (posthumously published novella, 1996)


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{{wikiquote}}
{{wikiquote}}
*[http://people.ucsc.edu/~laporte/simpson/Index.html George Gaylord Simpson] — full and comprehensive biography by L. F. Laporte
*[http://people.ucsc.edu/~laporte/simpson/Index.html George Gaylord Simpson] — full and comprehensive biography by L. F. Laporte
*[http://www.stephenjaygould.org/people/george_simpson.html George Gaylord Simpson] — biographical sketch from The Stephen Jay Gould Archive
*[http://www.stephenjaygould.org/people/george_simpson.html George Gaylord Simpson] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090824120929/http://www.stephenjaygould.org/people/george_simpson.html |date=August 24, 2009 }} — biographical sketch from The Stephen Jay Gould Archive
*[https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/evolution/library/06/2/l_062_02.html George Gaylord Simpson] — a short biography from the PBS ''Evolution'' website
*[https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/evolution/library/06/2/l_062_02.html George Gaylord Simpson] — a short biography from the PBS ''Evolution'' website
*[http://www.amphilsoc.org/collections/search?creator=simpson;smode=advanced;f1-subject=Simpson,%20George%20Gaylord,%201902-1984 George Gaylord Simpson Papers, American Philosophical Society.]
*[http://www.amphilsoc.org/collections/search?creator=simpson;smode=advanced;f1-subject=Simpson,%20George%20Gaylord,%201902-1984 George Gaylord Simpson Papers, American Philosophical Society.]
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[[Category:1984 deaths]]
[[Category:1984 deaths]]
[[Category:Columbia University faculty]]
[[Category:Columbia University faculty]]
[[Category:Critics of creationism]]
[[Category:American critics of creationism]]
[[Category:Critics of cryptozoology]]
[[Category:Critics of cryptozoology]]
[[Category:Critics of Lamarckism]]
[[Category:Critics of Lamarckism]]
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[[Category:People associated with the American Museum of Natural History]]
[[Category:People associated with the American Museum of Natural History]]
[[Category:Yale University alumni]]
[[Category:Yale University alumni]]
[[Category:20th-century zoologists]]
[[Category:20th-century American zoologists]]
[[Category:Members of the American Philosophical Society]]
[[Category:Presidents of the Society of Vertebrate Paleontology]]

Latest revision as of 06:36, 28 April 2024

George Gaylord Simpson
ForMemRS
Simpson in 1965
Born(1902-06-16)June 16, 1902
Chicago, Illinois
DiedOctober 6, 1984(1984-10-06) (aged 82)
Tucson, Arizona
NationalityAmerican
Alma mater
Known forModern synthesis; quantum evolution
Awards
Scientific career
FieldsPaleontology
InstitutionsColumbia University
Doctoral advisorRichard Swann Lull[1]

George Gaylord Simpson (June 16, 1902 – October 6, 1984) was an American paleontologist. Simpson was perhaps the most influential paleontologist of the twentieth century, and a major participant in the modern synthesis, contributing Tempo and Mode in Evolution (1944), The Meaning of Evolution (1949) and The Major Features of Evolution (1953). He was an expert on extinct mammals and their intercontinental migrations.[2] Simpson was extraordinarily knowledgeable about Mesozoic fossil mammals and fossil mammals of North and South America. He anticipated such concepts as punctuated equilibrium (in Tempo and Mode) and dispelled the myth that the evolution of the horse was a linear process culminating in the modern Equus caballus. He coined the word hypodigm in 1940, and published extensively on the taxonomy of fossil and extant mammals.[3] Simpson was influentially, and incorrectly, opposed to Alfred Wegener's theory of continental drift,[4] but accepted the theory of plate tectonics (and continental drift) when the evidence became conclusive.

He was Professor of Zoology at Columbia University, and Curator of the Department of Geology and Paleontology at the American Museum of Natural History from 1945 to 1959. He was Curator of the Museum of Comparative Zoology at Harvard University from 1959 to 1970, and a Professor of Geosciences at the University of Arizona from 1968 until his retirement in 1982.

Awards and honors[edit]

Simpson was elected to the American Philosophical Society in 1936 and the United States National Academy of Sciences in 1941.[5][6] In 1943 Simpson was awarded the Mary Clark Thompson Medal from the National Academy of Sciences.[7] For his work, Tempo and mode in evolution, he was awarded the academy's Daniel Giraud Elliot Medal in 1944.[8] He was elected to the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1948.[9] He was awarded the Linnean Society of London's prestigious Darwin-Wallace Medal in 1958. Simpson also received the Royal Society's Darwin Medal 'In recognition of his distinguished contributions to general evolutionary theory, based on a profound study of palaeontology, particularly of vertebrates,' in 1962. In 1966, Simpson received the Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement.[10]

At the University of Arizona, Tucson, the Gould-Simpson Building was named in honor of Simpson and Minnesota geologist and polar explorer Lawrence M. Gould, who, like Simpson, also accepted an appointment as Professor of Geosciences at the University of Arizona after his formal retirement.[11] Simpson was noted for his work in the fields of paleobiogeography and animal evolution.

Views[edit]

In the 1960s, Simpson "rubbished the then-nascent science of exobiology, which concerned itself with life on places other than Earth, as a science without a subject".[12]

He was raised as a Christian but in his early teens became an agnostic, nontheist, and philosophical naturalist.[13]

Books[edit]

  • Attending marvels (1931)
  • Quantitative Zoology (1939)
  • Tempo and Mode in Evolution (1944)
  • The Principles of Classification and A Classification of Mammals (1945)
  • The Meaning of Evolution (1949, 1951)
  • Horses (1951)
  • Evolution and Geography (1953)
  • The Major Features of Evolution (1953)
  • Life: An Introduction to Biology (1957)
  • Quantitative Zoology (1960)
  • Principles of Animal Taxonomy (1961)
  • This View of Life (1964)
  • The Geography of Evolution (1965)
  • Penguins (1976)
  • Concession to the Improbable (1978) (an autobiography)
  • Splendid Isolation (1980)
  • The Book of Darwin (1983)
  • Fossils and the History Of Life (1983)
  • The Dechronization of Sam Magruder (posthumously published novella, 1996)

See also[edit]

References[edit]

  1. ^ a b c Whittington, H. B. (1986). "George Gaylord Simpson. 16 June 1902-6 October 1984". Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society. 32: 525–39. doi:10.1098/rsbm.1986.0017. JSTOR 770122. PMID 11621258. S2CID 31570609.
  2. ^ Simpson G.G. 1940. Mammals and land bridges. Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences 30: 137–163. See Charles H. Smith's website for full text: [1]
  3. ^ Simpson, G. G. (1940). "Types in modern taxonomy". American Journal of Science. 238 (6): 413–426. Bibcode:1940AmJS..238..413S. doi:10.2475/ajs.238.6.413. p. 418.
  4. ^ Simpson G.G. 1953. Evolution and geography: an essay on historical biogeography with special reference to mammals. Oregon State System of Higher Education: Eugene, Oregon.
  5. ^ "APS Member History". search.amphilsoc.org. Retrieved May 31, 2023.
  6. ^ "George G. Simpson". www.nasonline.org. Retrieved May 31, 2023.
  7. ^ "Mary Clark Thompson Medal". National Academy of Sciences. Archived from the original on December 29, 2010. Retrieved February 15, 2011.
  8. ^ "Daniel Giraud Elliot Medal". National Academy of Sciences. Archived from the original on August 1, 2012. Retrieved February 15, 2011.
  9. ^ "George Gaylord Simpson". American Academy of Arts & Sciences. February 9, 2023. Retrieved May 31, 2023.
  10. ^ "Golden Plate Awardees of the American Academy of Achievement". www.achievement.org. American Academy of Achievement.
  11. ^ Gould-Simpson Building, Univ. of Arizona Archived June 15, 2009, at the Wayback Machine
  12. ^ Anon (2006). "Astrobiology at ten". Nature. 440 (7084): 582. Bibcode:2006Natur.440Q.582.. doi:10.1038/440582a. PMID 16572129.
  13. ^ Léo F. Laporte, ed. (1987). Simple Curiosity: Letters from Gaylord Simpson to His Family, 1921-1970. University of California Press. p. 16. ISBN 9780520057920. By his early teens, Simpson had given up being a Christian, although he had not formally declared himself an atheist. At college he began the gradual development of what might best be called positivistic agnosticism: a belief that the world could be known and explained by ordinary empirical observation without recourse to supernatural forces. Ultimate causation, he considered unknowable.

Further reading[edit]

  • Aronson, J. (2002). "'Molecules and monkeys': George Gaylord Simpson and the challenge of molecular evolution". History & Philosophy of the Life Sciences. 24 (3–4): 441–465. doi:10.1080/03919710210001714503. PMID 15045833.
  • Gershenowitz, H. (1978). "George Gaylord Simpson and Lamarck". Indian Journal of History of Science. 13 (1): 56–61. PMID 11615952.
  • Laporte, L. O. F. (1994). "Simpson on species". Journal of the History of Biology. 27 (1): 141–159. doi:10.1007/BF01058629. PMID 11639257. S2CID 34975382.
  • Olson, E. C. (1991). "George Gaylord Simpson: June 16, 1902-October 6, 1984". Biographical Memoirs of the National Academy of Sciences. 60: 331–353. PMID 11616139.
  • Laporte, Léo F. (1991). "George Gaylord Simpson as mentor and apologist for paleoanthropology". American Journal of Physical Anthropology. 84 (1): 1–16. doi:10.1002/ajpa.1330840102. PMID 2018099.
  • Laporte, L. F. (1983). "Simpson's Tempo and Mode in Evolution revisited". Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society. 127 (6): 365–417. PMID 11611330.

External links[edit]

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